Policies on student and educational migration

In recent years there has been an astronomical growth in the numbers of Indian students studying at UK universities. This paper situates this increase in relation to global and historical developments: the development of internationalization in education, liberalization in the economies of India and the UK as well as the centuries-old relationship between the two countries. Statistical data is examined in order to develop a picture of this group, followed by the results of a qualitative study which examined the motivations and experiences of Indian students currently studying, or who have recently finished their studies in the UK. The results speak to Bourdieu’s (1984) theories of cultural capital and illustrate that student migrants do not go to the UK just for study, but that they often have larger expectations from the trip, entwined with their own personal long term strategies. Finally, the data is used to critique current UK policy with regards to the student visa system.

The development of European policies on higher education in the last two decades has facilitated and encouraged (inward) non-European student mobility. This paper examines the issue of student mobility between two European host countries, namely Germany and France and a leading source country, namely India. Often regarded as the “middle players”, the paper identifies factors that drive the demand for higher education in these alternative destinations and elements that have contributed to their growing visibility among Indian students. The paper draws on findings from a recently conducted survey on Indian students in Europe to also identify the challenges associated with pursuing higher education in Germany and France. The paper further examines the role of competition and its impact on the international competitiveness of these destinations and concludes with policy recommendations, which can facilitate international student flows to Germany and France.

The development of European policies on higher education in the last two decades has facilitated and encouraged (inward) non-European student mobility. This paper examines the issue of student mobility between two European host countries, namely Germany and France and a leading source country, namely India. Often regarded as the “middle players”, the paper identifies factors that drive the demand for higher education in these alternative destinations and elements that have contributed to their growing visibility among Indian students. The paper draws on findings from a recently conducted survey on Indian students in Europe to also identify the challenges associated with pursuing higher education in Germany and France. The paper further examines the role of competition and its impact on the international competitiveness of these destinations and concludes with policy recommendations, which can facilitate international student flows to Germany and France.

The International Migration Policy And Law Analysis (IMPALA) Database is a cross-national, cross-institutional, cross-disciplinary project on comparative immigration policy. The pilot database version covers 10 years and 9 country cases including Australia, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States of America. It covers The focus is admission policy, although the authors include also acquisition of citizenship, which is generally understood as being part of ‘immigrant policies’, namely what happens after admission. The project classifies and measures tracks of entry associated with five migration categories: economic migration, family reunification, asylum and humanitarian migration, and student migration, as well as acquisition of citizenship. It is the product of an international collaboration between researchers from George Mason University, Harvard University, London School of Economics and Political Science, Paris School of Economics, University of Amsterdam, University of Luxembourg, and University of Sydney.

European policies on higher education have progressively encouraged inward student mobility and in recent years, a number of European countries have become popular destinations for foreign students. However, with the emergence of new host countries, the competition for international students has intensified. A key variable that determines the competitiveness of a host country is the legislation governing international students. This paper provides a comparison of the current legislation governing the entry and stay conditions of international students in 5 European countries – the UK, Germany, France, Sweden and Netherlands. The paper also provides a comparative analysis across stages of legislation to assess the post-study employment conditions for international students. As the objective is to assess the implications of the legal regimes for student flows from India (to selected European countries), the paper also draws a comparison between the former and the current legislation governing international students in the United States, Australia and other emerging host nations. The paper concludes with a summary of findings and policy recommendations to improve the competitiveness of European countries as destinations for higher education.

In the absence of a multilateral framework and a rule based global structure for the governance of international migration of people in all its complexities, countries engage in bilateral or regional cooperation in an attempt to engage and harmonize international movements and strive for a win-win situation. India and the EU are major trading partners and are engaged in a strategic Joint Action Plan with annual summit level talks; both sides are on the cusp of a new beginning through the soon to be concluded Free Trade Agreement (FTA). India-EU engagements, while underlining the importance of engagement on movement of people, have not clearly spelt out, as of yet, any roadmap for facilitation and enhancement of movement of people between the regions. The current paper examines if, and how, the bilateral relationship or engagement between India and the EU over the years has influenced international migration flows between the two sides and what potential challenges and policy options they face for a successful engagement and facilitation of movement of people. The paper suggests that given India’s strategic position as a major country of origin for skilled and semi-skilled migrant workers, coupled with foreseeable requirements in the EU domestic markets. There is need for a closer examination of policy initiatives to embrace bilateral flows and make the exercise beneficial for both partners. The International migration flows between India and Europe in the past had always depended on the quality and strength of engagement between the countries and regions. Currently, the EU however has a low profile in India in terms of its ability to attract the best of the talent compared to competitors such as the US and Canada. Therefore, the main challenge is to enhance the EU’s presence in India through greater participation, outreach and building of networks among academia, think tanks and the media. Student mobility need to be increased in all important sectors such as IT, healthcare, science and technology, research and development so as to help create advocacy groups and to enable a greater synergy of talent between India and the EU and enhance future cooperation, partnership and development. Easing of immigration policies for selective sectors of employment and education which are of strategic concern is also important. This will require measures for mutual recognition of degrees and skills, and a minimal window for long-term immigration and integration of third country migrant professionals and workers.

What has changed in the post-Soviet period in the field of educational migration from Azerbaijan? The socio-political and cultural contexts are certainly quite different from those that existed, for example, during the Soviet years. In the meanwhile, the current situation is a direct continuation of the tradition of sending students abroad for "modern" knowledge. As in the previous years, a significant (if not the largest) share of intellectuals who were educated in the "West" prefer to emigrate rather than to return to the country of origin. In this regard, any hopes for a successful transfer of democratic values into Azerbaijan seem difficult to implement. The most obvious innovation of the post-Soviet period is the active involvement of young people receiving their education/educated abroad, into the policy of Diaspora-building. The latter is part and parcel of the policy of the Azeri political regime to lobby its interests in the EU, the U.S. and the countries of the former Soviet Union.

1. Almost half of all Member States consider attracting and retaining international students a policy priority, although the degree to which this is a priority significantly differed across Member States. Other policy priorities such as preventing misuse of this legal migration channel for third-country nationals were also identified. 2. The number of international students coming to the EU to undertake their studies has increased steadily over the recent years. In 2017, over 460 000 first residence permits were issued for study reasons in the EU. The most popular destinations for international students coming to the EU in 2017 were the United Kingdom, France and Germany which issued around half of all first residence permits for study reasons in the EU. In terms of the share of third-country nationals of all students, data for 2017 for 14 Member States showed that the highest share of international students from all students was in Cyprus (18 %), Germany (10 %), Hungary (9 %), Ireland (8 %) and Latvia (8 %). 3. The highest number of international students came to the EU from China, the United States and India. 4. The main policy drivers for attracting and retaining international students included the internationalisation of HEIs and increasing financial revenue for the higher education sector, contributing to economic growth by increasing the national pool of qualified labour and addressing specific (skilled) labour shortages plus tackling demographic change. 5. Both national governments and HEIs alike were found to implement comprehensive promotional activities and campaigns in many Member States to attract international students, often combining their efforts. The most common approaches in place to attract international students were promotional activities and dissemination of information targeted at prospective international students, in some cases, taking place directly in selected countries of origin. 6. Member States identified a number of common challenges in attracting international students. These included: limited availability of courses taught in foreign languages, especially in English; lengthy processing times of applications for visas and residence permits, especially for Member States with insufficient representation in third countries; insufficient promotional activities and scholarship opportunities; as well as (affordable) housing shortages. 7. Post study retention measures were found to be in place in the majority of Member States and were mostly policy-related, seeking to facilitate access to the labour market by eliminating certain restrictions to labour market access for international graduates. 8. Some factors which significantly contributed to student attraction did not necessarily benefit student retention. Programmes taught in English have had positive impacts on attracting international students to Member States but can hamper the longterm integration of international students into the labour market, unless language learning and other integration measures take place during the period of study. 9. Member States aim to balance policies to attract and retain international students with measures to prevent abuse of the student route for other migration purposes by ensuring opportunities to study and work are made available only to those with a genuine intention to pursue higher education in the EU. 10. Bilateral and multilateral agreements with third countries have created important frameworks for cooperation, including in relation to student mobility. The majority of these agreements were aimed at exchanging experiences and practices, teachers, students and researchers, as well as the establishment of fellowships

Het doel van dit onderzoek was om inzicht te verkrijgen in de factoren die een rol spelen in de vestigingskeuze van kennismigranten, zoekjaarders, zelfstandigen en start-ups en hoe verschillende factoren, inclusief het Nederlandse beleid, worden gewogen in deze keuze. De resultaten bieden handvatten om Nederland aantrekkelijker te maken als vestigingsland.

The use of numerical targets in the area of migration can contribute to a more forward-looking, coherent and socially embedded migration policy. To ensure this, however, the numerical targets must be derived from a broader view of migration in society and applied realistically. It is also essential that the national government has sufficient policy space to actually implement the numerical targets. Otherwise, the government is simply setting itself up for failure. Due to external factors, such as war in another country, the national government has limited control over asylum migration, unlike labour migration. If the government wants to commit to the use of numerical targets, the Canadian model – with its emphasis on citizen consultation – could provide some guidance in this area. This is essentially the scope of this report. Coping capacity and migration Migration policy is constantly in the media and political spotlight and is the subject of much public debate. The recent crisis over the reception of asylum seekers and the abuse of labour migration is a clear example of this. There is a feeling in the Netherlands that migration is something that just happens to us and that we, as a society, have no control over it. As a result, citizens feel insecure and lose confidence in the government. This affects the ability of Dutch society to deal with migration. Active migration policy In this context, the Dutch government has asked the Advisory Council on Migration to examine the possible advantages and limitations of setting or using numerical targets and to consider the objectives that might be served by the use of a numerical target in policy. The main focus of the Advisory Council in this report is to consider the extent to which a quantitative data driven migration policy, with numerical targets would contribute to an active migration policy, which – as the Council argues in this report – should be forward-looking, coherent and socially embedded. ‘Forward-looking’ means taking a long-term view and considering the level and type of migration that the Netherlands would like to see. ‘Coherent’ means that migration policy is also shaped by related policies such as labour market policy, foreign policy and education policy. ‘Socially embedded’ means that the migration policy not only has the support of society, but also focuses on the reciprocal relationship between citizens and civil society organisations, on the one hand, and newcomers, on the other. Effects of numerical targets Can numerical targets contribute to better policies and improved implementation? And does the use of numerical targets help to give citizens a greater sense of control over migration? Based on these two perspectives, i.e. the political and administrative perspective and the social perspective, this report zooms in on the use of numerical targets. Here, numerical targets are seen as quantitative targets based on a qualitative objective to be achieved. There are important differences between the types of numerical targets. ‘Immigration quotas’ represent ‘hard’ commitments to outcomes, while ‘immigration targets’ imply ‘soft’ commitments to best efforts.

Attracting and retaining migrants can have many benefits for the host country and its economy, for example to mitigate skills shortages. Regulating immigration may prevent several negative consequences of a shrinking and ageing population. However, research and policy often focus on the highly skilled or so-called knowledge migrants (kennismigranten) as a source of human capital, which can increase innovation and a country’s competitiveness. A group of labour migrants that receives significantly less attention from research and policy, are the medium-skilled migrant workers. Although it makes up a significant share of the migrant population, this group is rarely supported by specific migration policies. Therefore, in this report we would like to answer the following central research question: What is known in available literature about the opportunities and limitations of filling labour shortages through labour migration, especially in the middle segment of the labour market?

L’objectif est d’analyser les modes d’agencement et de construction de l’orientation scolaire des jeunes migrants dans le contexte socio-institutionnel qu’est la désignation de ces publics comme « EANA » (élève allophone nouvellement arrivants). Le projet se déploierait uniquement dans les deux académies d’Île-de-France durant la première année. Il s’agirait d’analyser la construction de l’orientation scolaire des jeunes migrants dans le système éducatif français : production de discours institutionnels, pratiques des collégiens et adultes intervenant auprès d’eux. Ceci suppose de s’intéresser aux différentes étapes de l’orientation, depuis la première évaluation passée en France au vécu de l’orientation durant la période qui la suit. Cela implique aussi de s’intéresser aux interactions entre les producteurs de normes et de procédures afférentes à l’orientation (acteurs de l’Éducation nationale, collectivités territoriales, secteurs associatifs mais aussi logiciel dédié) et aux jeunes et famille qui la vivent tout en participant aussi à l’édification de référentiels normatifs. Dans chaque académie, notre méthodologie, mixte, combine suivi qualitatif (observations, entretien)d’une cohorte de 20 jeunes pendant leur troisième (en dispositif et en « inclusion » en classe ordinaire). En complément, nous réaliserons, dans les deux académies, une analyse quantitative des orientations à partir du traitement des données des bases élèves de l’Education nationale, celles dela DEPP et des CASNAV (Centre académiques pour la scolarisation des élèves nouvellement arrivés et issus de familles itinérantes ou du voyage) et analyserons la manière dont le logiciel d’affectation des élèves participe à la construction de l’orientation pour ces jeunes. Parallèlement, nous organiserons un cycle de séminaires mensuels interdisciplinaires sur l’éducation et les migrationsafin d’articuler les deux champs thématiques liés à l’éducation et aux migrations.

SIRIUS builds up on the national (and regional) activities and knowledge creation that took place between 2012 to 2014 with the European Commission’s support. It is expected that the national (and regional) activities within the 2017-2021 strategy have a direct impact on national policy implementation across the European Union (EU) with the goal of enabling inclusive and equitable education environments for children and young people with a migrant background. Such activities create a follow-up to the national-level cooperation and networking, recommendations and knowledge that were created and applied by SIRIUS since 2012. They will enable the transfer of research findings into policies and practice so that practitioners can better use the available evidence and advise to build policy consensus and effective implementation at school and community level. Some SIRIUS partners and policymakers have identified common regional challenges within similar contexts. For example, the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) started the cooperation as a pilot regional activity through SIRIUS. Regional cooperation has proven to be a successful and inspiring experience bringing together various ministry representatives and stakeholders. The Baltic regional cooperation will be consolidated into a partnership to tackle a wider variety of migrant education issues, particularly refugee education. This process will develop a best practice methodology that will then be transferred to other regions, particularly other new migrant and refugee destination countries, such as the Balkans