Labour markets and employment

The objectives of the Study are two-fold: To analyze the key labour market determinants of migration flows from selected Arab Mediterranean Countries (Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia and the Occupied Palestinian Territories), with a particular emphasis on demographic pressures, wage differentials and relative income disparities with the EU, employment policies, labour market flexibility and unemployment rates; this analysis includes the impact of migration on the labour markets of Arab Mediterranean Country (AMCs) labour markets; To propose a series of specific recommendations to improve the design of the EU’s migration policies towards AMCs and policy options available to them for the management of mismatches between labour supply and demand.

Einwanderer treten im Gastland häufig als Anbieter von haushaltsbezogenen Dienstleistungen auf, zum Beispiel im Bereich der Haushaltsführung, Kinderbetreuung und Pflege von älteren Haushaltsangehörigen, und können damit potenziell zur Erhöhung des Arbeitsangebots und der Fertilität von einheimischen Frauen beitragen. Das Projekt untersucht anhand von regional desaggregierten Daten für die Jahre 1996-2012, inwieweit das für Deutschland zutrifft. Datengrundlage ist zum einen das Sozio-ökonomische Panel (SOEP), und zum anderen INKAR (Indikatoren und Karten zur Raumentwicklung). Die Analyse wird regional und nach Qualifikationsniveau differenziert durchgeführt. Projektziel Beantwortung der folgenden Fragen: Entlasten Immigranten einheimische Frauen in Deutschland bei haushaltsbezogenen Dienstleistungen? Trägt dies zur Erhöhung von deren Arbeitsangebot und Fertilität bei? Unterscheiden sich die Effekte je nach Region und Qualifikationsniveau?

Dieses Projekt verfolgt das Ziel, Umfang und Charakteristiken der Beschäftigung Älterer umfangreich zu analysieren. Im ersten Projektteil benutzen wir zwei umfangreiche administrative Datensätze, um die Charakteristiken der letzten Beschäftigungsphase vor der Verrentung, das Übergangsmuster zwischen Beschäftigung und Verrentung, sowie eine Beschäftigung nach der Verrentung zu analysieren. Hierbei werden die Charakteristiken der Beschäftigten, ihrer Arbeitsmarkthistorien, ihrer Arbeitgeber sowie das ökonomische Umfeld in die Analyse einbezogen. Zudem werden die Zusammenhänge zwischen den einzelnen Aspekten der Beschäftigung Älterer analysiert. Im zweiten Projektteil werden die Determinanten der Beschäftigung Älterer zunächst theoretisch abgeleitet und anschließend empirisch auf der Basis der gleichen Datensätze untersucht. Mit einem Focus auf ökonomisch motivierten Entscheidungen werden wieder individuelle und betriebliche Charakteristiken sowie das ökonomische Umfeld in die Analyse einbezogen. Der letzte Projektteil analysiert wieder auf der Basis von theoretischen Hypothesen mit Hilfe eines dritten verknüpften Arbeitgeber-Arbeitnehmerpaneldatensatzes, ob Personalmaßnahmen einen Einfluss auf die Charakteristiken der Beschäftigung Älterer haben. Dieses Projekt geht somit deutlich über die geringe und verstreute Evidenz zum Thema Beschäftigung Älterer in Deutschland hinaus. Es gibt zum ersten Mal eine vollständige Übersicht über die Charakteristiken und Determinanten der Beschäftigung Älterer. Es schließt nicht nur die ökonomischen Überlegungen der Betroffenen, sondern auch deren Arbeitgeber und des ökonomischen Umfelds mit ein. Politik- und Managementimplikationen dieses Projekts können die Identifizierung von Potenzialen einer Erhöhung der Beschäftigung Älterer sein sowie deren Gründe und Hindernisse. Eine umfangreiche Analyse von Personalmaßnahmen gibt uns zusätzliche Einsichten über die Möglichkeiten von Arbeitgebern, die Beschäftigung Älterer zu erhöhen.

Europe is today facing several major challenges. These go beyond the future of the euro and the instability of the financial system to some of the underlying issues concerned with the work activities that underpin the European economy. How can Europe retain manufacturing and production as restructuring and relocation towards lower-wage costs economies gathers pace? As demographic change lifts the proportions of older workers in society and in employment, how can Europe both maintain decent levels of pensions and provide decent jobs for younger workers? As cross-border migration becomes ever easier how can migrant workers be fully integrated and accepted into the European labour market? How can aspirations for decent jobs be squared with the nearly pan-European progression of precarious work? Europe’s future depends in large part on the answers it can provide to these questions within the context of the vision of a competitive, technologically-innovative economy bolstered by a high road social model that was captured in the Europe 2020 strategy. The aim of the ChangingEmployment programme is to train a cross-European and interdisciplinary network of policy-focused social scientists comprehensively skilled in understanding, analyzing, and responding to social and institutional employment changes. Overall, it will: 1.Explore, societal differences, national variations in employees’ experiences of working life. 2.Examine historic and changing relations between management and employees. 3.Develop a comparative understanding of the changing quality of work, organisation and employment in the context of the (above) changes. 4.Consider patterns and consequences of workplace inclusion-exclusion in relation to migration, employment and unemployment, shifting inequalities in terms of gender and ethnicity and the implications for older employees of new patterns of work and retirement. 5.Assess impact of the current economic retrenchment on these forms of employment in Europe

The RuMiT (Rural Migration in Tunisia) research addresses the determinants of migration and mobility, the patterns and types of rural youth outmigration and the impact of rural youth migration on rural livelihoods and societies in origin regions in Tunisia. The research used a mixed-methods approach combining quantitative and qualitative methods, providing comparative insights into: international and internal migrants and non-migrants; pre- and post-2011 migrants; households with and without migrants. Main results show that migrants from rural areas are increasingly highly educated and leaving to pursue their studies abroad. This particularly applies to women, who also register a decrease in marriage-related migration. Migration proves to be rewarding for both internal and international migrants, in terms of occupational and social security outcomes. In particular, migrant women have higher labour market participation and employment rates than non-migrants. As a direct consequence of an emigration which is still male dominated, households with migrants are increasingly feminized, i.e. with a higher share of women, who are more likely to be active compared with women in nonmigrant households. Migrant households were also found to have higher access to social security. While incomes from remittances tend not to be invested in productive activities, evidence shows that one internal migrant out of four and one international migrant out of three has an economic activity in the areas of origin, which in most of the cases is connected with agricultural or animal production. The Rural Migration in Tunisia (RuMiT) research project was undertaken in the framework of the FAO project “Youth mobility, food security and rural poverty reduction: Fostering rural diversification through enhanced youth employment and better mobility” (GCP/INT/240/ITA) – in brief, the Rural Youth Migration (RYM) project – implemented in Tunisia and Ethiopia between 2015 and 2017, and funded by the Italian Development Cooperation.

The specific nature of Moldovan circular migration to the CIS and EU is determined by two criteria: vector (direction) of migration and nature of employment in destination countries. According to the results of public opinion poll, mainly people from the villages participate in circular migration to the CIS; heads of households, men with secondary or vocational education. For them labor migration abroad is a secondary form of employment, and it is seasonal. Circular migrants to the other countries are predominantly women, and a great share of them have higher education. There are significant differences which determine circular nature of migration, especially in the impact of push and pull factors. Labor migration to the CIS countries is determined to a greater extent by the migrants' and their households' need to survive, while migration to the EU countries is conditioned by the greater living (functioning) opportunities for migrants and their families. Visa regime, high travel expenses have a significant impact on the nature of circular migration to the EU. It explains greater length of trips. Work trip to the CIS (mainly to Russia) usually lasts around 7 months, while in the EU it's twice longer, 15 months. Quite often it stimulates non-return migration. In the conditions of modern financial and economic crisis of 2008-2010 circular migration acquired several new features. These include delayed nature of migration, greater comparable choice possibilities in terms of destination countries and countries of origin, uncertainty and mass multiple choices of its implementation.

Attracting and retaining migrants can have many benefits for the host country and its economy, for example to mitigate skills shortages. Regulating immigration may prevent several negative consequences of a shrinking and ageing population. However, research and policy often focus on the highly skilled or so-called knowledge migrants (kennismigranten) as a source of human capital, which can increase innovation and a country’s competitiveness. A group of labour migrants that receives significantly less attention from research and policy, are the medium-skilled migrant workers. Although it makes up a significant share of the migrant population, this group is rarely supported by specific migration policies. Therefore, in this report we would like to answer the following central research question: What is known in available literature about the opportunities and limitations of filling labour shortages through labour migration, especially in the middle segment of the labour market? CONTENT: 1. Introduction, 2. Methodology, 3. Shortages and skill requirements in the middle segment of the Dutch labour market, 4. Priority supply from EEA+ countries and beyond, 5. Migration as a solution to address shortages in the middle segment of the Dutch labour market, 6. Alternative solutions to staffing bottlenecks in the middle segment of the Dutch labour market, 7. Conclusions and directions for further research.

The need to deal with health inequalities is now on the agenda of key supranational institutions, such as the European Commission (EC). To tackle the so-called “causes of the causes of health inequity”, the focus should be put on structural policies, policies that – especially in the current times of financial and employment crisis – influence patterns of social stratification, living and working conditions, and thus people's health. The SOPHIE project aims to generate new evidence on the impact and effectiveness of structural policies in reducing health inequalities, and to develop innovative methodologies for the evaluation of these policies in Europe. We will study major policy areas, including macro-economy, welfare state, labour market and employment relations, built environment, housing, as well as gender-oriented and immigration-related policies. Examples of these policies at the European, national and local levels will be examined, in addition to their impacts on health inequalities by social class, gender and migrant status. The project will develop theoretical frameworks as well as quantitative and qualitative methods for evaluating the effectiveness of such policies in different contexts. Novel methods that are useful for evaluating the impact of complex social interventions will be employed, including realist reviews, explanatory case studies and concept mapping. Particular attention will be given to increasing the involvement of affected stakeholders (civil society and deprived population groups) in the identification, design and evaluation of policies to tackle health inequalities. Affected communities and stakeholders will work with responsible policymakers in activities of dissemination of results, knowledge transfer and translation of findings into policy recommendations. Through SOPHIE, the EC will gain knowledge on the impact on health and health inequalities of social and economic policies which may be implemented or recommended to Member States

Τhe causes of irregular migration can be traced at the junctions between individual search for life prospects, demand in the labour market, and restrictive migration control policies. The present report aims at examining the way in which these three forces (individual activity, labour market and policies) intertwine in the case of irregular Georgian migration to Greece. The research looks at the ways in which various factors, including Greek policies of migration and asylum management and migration control affect the plans and the actions of Georgian irregular migrants.

The regularisation of irregular immigrants remains one of the main controversial policy options in regard to policies towards irregular migrants. While there is an increasing realisation that in some contexts regularisation may be an appropriate and necessary response to the sustained presence of irregular migrants, notably in humanitarian cases such as migrants who cannot be returned or who have family or other strong ties to their country of residence, opposition against regularisation remains strong, often based on principled considerations. However, very little is still known about wider impacts of regularisation, and in particular the impact of regularisation on those regularised. Objectives: The objectives of this feasibility study are threefold: • To determine the feasibility of conducting a comparative survey on the labour market performance of regularised immigrants in seven European countries; • To identify the best design for an empirical study of the labour market performance of regularised and irregular migrants and prepare draft tools for an implementation of the survey; • To provide tentative results on labour market trajectories of regularised migrants on the basis of exploratory qualitative research conducted in the course of the feasibility study. An earlier study conducted by ICMPD between 2007 and 2009 ( “Regularisations in Europe”, REGINE) had identified the overall extent of regularisation, the different forms, rationales and target groups of regularisation, while linking regularisation to the complex causes of irregularity, differing patterns of irregular migration and different overall policy responses to irregular migration across the EU. Yet as a study largely based on desk research and limited primary data collection amongst public authorities and other stakeholders, the study was unable to provide robust evidence regarding the wider impacts of regularisation, including the impact of regularisation on labour market trajectories of regularised migrants. The REGANE study sets out to address this gap. In its feasibility study phase, the study has three aims. First, it will assess the feasibility of conducting a quantitative survey amongst regularised and non-regularised migrants in 7 European countries; second, it will explore the best design for a quantitative empirical study of labour market trajectories of regularised migrants; and third it will undertake explorative qualitative research involving research with relevant experts, public authorities and migrants, thus not only preparing the ground for the implementation of the quantitative survey but also providing preliminary results regarding labour market trajectories of regularised migrants. The quantitative survey prepared through this feasibility study itself is planned to be implemented in a second phase of the project. It expected to provide the first systematic comparative assessment of individual level impacts of regularisation on those regularised in Europe.

Since almost 150 years, Luxembourg depends on two kinds of migration, qualified and non-qualified, in order to deal with the workforce needs of its economy. Compared to the other EU Member States, Luxembourg is the country with the largest proportion of foreigners; however, this foreign population is mainly composed of EU citizens. Due to its size and geographic position, Luxembourg was able to have access to a very particular form of economic migration: cross-border workers. Globalisation has also played a decisive role in the development of economic migration for the Luxembourgish labour market. The financial centre was obliged to become highly specialised in order to remain competitive in regards to other financial centres and to maintain its volume of business. In order to maintain its competitive advantage, Luxembourg needs highly skilled personnel, which the country has found, up until now, within the Greater Region. This reality is even more pronounced with regards to the labour market: the number of actives (salaried and non-salaried) on 31 March 2014 shows that Luxembourgish nationals represented only 31%, EU citizens 65% and third-country nationals only 4%. Cross-border workers from Belgium, France and Germany represented 42% of the workforce and the resident migrant population (EU citizens and third-country nationals) 28%. Cross-border workers, which consist of skilled and highly skilled labour are substantially attracted for two reasons: 1) more competitive salaries on the Luxemburgish labour market ; and 2) a geographical location which allows the commuting of cross-border workers. The attitude of the successive governments was to adapt immigration to the economic needs of the country. The government policy intends to focus on attracting highly added value activities focussed on new technologies (biomedicine and information as well as communication technologies – focusing on IT security), logistics and research. However, being one of the smallest countries in the European Union, Luxembourg has limited human resources to guarantee the growth not only of the financial sector but also of the new technologies sectors. The government introduced the highly qualified worker residence permit in the bill on free movement of persons and immigration approved by law of 29 August 2008 almost a year before of the enactment of the Blue Card Directive to facilitate the entry of third-country national highly qualified workers. However, this reform was isolated and incomplete and took place without making a real evaluation of the workforce demand of the different sectors of the economy. Even though until now Luxembourg has been relying on the workforce from the Greater Region, for some socio-economic and political stakeholders, highly qualified workforces began to become scarce in the Greater region. In addition to the cross-border workers, the lifting of restrictions to access all the sectors of the labour market for citizens of the new Member States (EU-8) can be considered as a mitigating factor for the need to make an evaluation of the workforce demand, because the high salaries paid in Luxembourg became a real pull factor for the highly qualified workers. As a consequence, the political authorities did not foresee a systematic plan on how to address labour shortages in specific sectors of the economy, because there has not been a significant need for doing so.

Das TP widmet sich der transnationalen Entwicklung auf dem Feld der Langzeitpflege. Pflegesicherungssysteme sind eine der jüngsten Sozialpolitikexpansionen in Wohlfahrtsstaaten. Die Pflegepolitiken sind durch vorwiegend weibliche Arbeitskräftemigration transnational verflochten. Es werden die Folgen dieser Migration für die Sozialpolitik der Immigrationsländer in Abhängigkeit von ihrem Wohlfahrtsstaatstypus ebenso untersucht wie die Migrations-Auswirkungen auf die Sozialpolitik in den Emigrationsländern unterschiedlichen Wohlstandsniveaus, so in Polen, Rumänien und der Ukraine.

The dissolution of the socialist system in the early 1990s resulted in crucial quantitative and qualitative transformations in post-Soviet society. One of the determinants of the status of a person in a newly-shaped social hierarchy was individual mobility: social, economic, occupational, and geographical1 . The propensity for economic mobility, in search of employment became an indispensable survival skill for millions of impoverished people2 . Hence, an increasing transnationalism has been observable in society, accompanied by a growing wave of emigration. According to IOM3 , in absolute numbers, the pull of Ukrainian nationals residing abroad approached 6 million, while BMP data4 are even more impressive – 10 million.

Data include statistics on trafficking (only trafficking for labour purposes, not including trafficking for the removal of organs, forced marriage, forced adoption…). ILO mainly focuses on the root causes of trafficking, especially weak labour market governance, ineffective labour migration and recruitment systems using media reports, reports from NGOs, GOs, IOs, academia, trade unions.

Attracting and retaining migrants can have many benefits for the host country and its economy, for example to mitigate skills shortages. Regulating immigration may prevent several negative consequences of a shrinking and ageing population. However, research and policy often focus on the highly skilled or so-called knowledge migrants (kennismigranten) as a source of human capital, which can increase innovation and a country’s competitiveness. A group of labour migrants that receives significantly less attention from research and policy, are the medium-skilled migrant workers. Although it makes up a significant share of the migrant population, this group is rarely supported by specific migration policies. Therefore, in this report we would like to answer the following central research question: What is known in available literature about the opportunities and limitations of filling labour shortages through labour migration, especially in the middle segment of the labour market?

Le présent rapport cherche à dresser un panorama de la question de la migration hautement qualifiée en Mauritanie. Des données récentes estiment que l’effectif des compétences mauritaniennes de niveau supérieur ayant émigrées représente une proportion comprise entre 10,4% et 12,0% par rapport à l’ensemble de la main d’œuvre mauritanienne ayant un niveau d’instruction supérieur ; ce chiffre correspond égalent à quelques 22,0% du nombre de migrants mauritaniens à l’étranger. La présente note analytique vise à clarifier les causes de la migration qualifiée qui sont étroitement liées avec le fonctionnement du marché du travail dans ce pays. En effet, la Mauritanie demeure un pays à faible revenu dont l’économie se base principalement sur les revenus provenant des ressources naturelles (industries extractives, pêcheries, pétrole, par exemple) et de l'aide provenant de l’étranger. Outre à cette structure économique, le marché du travail est caractérisé par un niveau de chômage élevé et persistant ainsi que par une informalité importante de l’emploi. Par ailleurs, les sortants du système éducatif, notamment les diplômés, se retrouve également confronté à la question du chômage. Ce phénomène laisse à penser qu’une certaine inadéquation entre le système de formation et les besoins du marché du travail existe en Mauritanie. Au déficit d’opportunités d’emploi s’ajoute un niveau de pauvreté élevé favorisant tous types d'émigration, notamment pour les individus ayant un niveau d’instruction supérieur et pouvant probablement davantage se permettre les coûts de l’émigration. The aim of this paper is to offer a profile of highly-skilled migrants from Mauritania. From recent data, we know that highly-skilled emigrants make up about 22.0% of all emigrants; or between 10.4% and 12.0% of the highly-skilled labor force in Mauritania. Here, we focus on the pull factors of this type of emigration which are mainly related to the functioning of the labor market. Mauritania remains a low-income country with an economy based largely on income from natural resources – i.e. fishery industries and extractive activities – as well as foreign aid. High levels of unemployment and informal employment are the main features characterizing this labor market. As the graduate population seems to be particularly vulnerable to such negative labor-market conditions, the mismatch between the educational system and labor-market needs plays a fundamental role in the decision to emigrate. Finally, together with these labor-market determinants, poverty represents a constant push-factor for all types of emigration and thus also for highly-skilled individuals, who can better afford the costs of emigration.

EU-detachering – soms ook wel de A1-constructie genoemd – kent verschillende vormen. Van het detacheren van experts en specialisten tot het inzetten van arbeidskrachten tegen zo laag mogelijke kosten, ook wel concurrentiedetachering genoemd. Deze laatste vorm wordt in toenemende mate door Nederlandse werkgevers toegepast, vooral binnen sectoren als de bouw, productiewerk, transport, landbouw en de vleesverwerkende industrie. Werkgevers en uitzendbureaus in deze sectoren gebruiken via detacheringsconstructies arbeidsmigranten van binnen en buiten de EU als een manier om te besparen op arbeid. In vergelijking met werkgevers in andere Europese landen maken Nederlandse werkgevers veelvuldig gebruik van een flexibele schil van personeel. Hierbij kan gedacht worden aan tijdelijke contracten, nulurencontracten, oproepkrachten, uitzendkrachten en zzp'ers. EU-detachering is een variant van zo’n flexibele arbeidsrelatie. Ondoorzichtige constructies maken controles lastig De Adviesraad Migratie vindt concurrentiedetachering problematisch. De (lange) detacheringsketen van verschillende partijen in het zendende en ontvangende land met een wirwar aan regels en arbeidscontracten, zorgt ervoor dat het onduidelijk is wat de rechten van mensen zijn. De complexe regelgeving van EU-detacheringwordt gebruikt voor ontduiking van verantwoordelijkheden. Dat maakt het lastig om vast te stellen wie precies waarvoor verantwoordelijk is. Daarbij pakt regelgeving in elk EU-land net weer anders uit en bilaterale verdragen met niet EU landen bepalen bijvoorbeeld of iemand een uitkering voor arbeidsongeschiktheid ook daadwerkelijk ontvangt. Het is haast onmogelijk voor een gedetacheerde arbeidsmigrant om precies te weten waar hij of zij recht op heeft, laat staan dat er wordt overgaan tot actie bij het niet nakomen van arbeidsvoorwaarden of bij slechte arbeidsomstandigheden. Dat geldt ook voor de gemeenten waar deze mensen wonen als voor de Nederlandse Arbeidsinspectie. Zij kunnen door een gebrek aan capaciteit, opsporingsbevoegdheden en het ontbreken van gegevens, niet goed handhaven. Werkgevers kunnen zich op hun beurt achter complexe regelgeving verschuilen en hier misbruik van maken.