Routes, hubs, and sites in travel & migration

In the paper we trace how Macedonia and Serbia strategically positioned themselves regarding the government of transit migration though their territory by dynamically shifting between humanitarianism and securitization before the formalized corridor emerged, during its existence, in the process of its closure, and after it was shut down. This is not to say that precise dates can be pinpointed to distinguish these “phases”: the emergence of the formalized corridor in the south of the Balkan route, for example, was a dynamic process which resulted from the interplay of state practices, practices of mobility, activities of activists, volunteers, and NGOs, media coverage, etc. The same applies for its closure. However, the text follows a diachronic line in which we describe the contextual factors that decisively shaped the transformation of the migration policies of the two states. It focuses in particular on transportation practices, accommodation, (in)visibility of migrants, activity of (non-)state actors, unique national instruments (such as the 72-hours paper), the One Stop centres and the transit zones at the Serbian-Hungarian border.

In 2015, there were higher than normal migration flows from Turkey to Greece and then via the Western Balkans to other European Union (EU) countries, leading to what has been termed Europe’s ‘refugee crisis’. The primary research question guiding this study is: How can the fluctuations in migration flows on the Balkans route from January 2015-December 2018 be explained? The core sub-questions guiding this research are: What explanations are there for the sharp decrease in the number of refugees and migrants on the Balkans route even before the EU-Turkey Statement came into effect? What are the decision making factors of refugees and migrants when choosing to leave Turkey before and after the EU-Turkey Statement? To what extent do policy interventions impact refugees and migrants’ decision-making regarding routes and destination choices?

Amid rising numbers of asylum seekers arriving in the EU and migrating along the Balkan route in 2015, state, EU and traditional NGO institutions failed to adequately receive, register and care for the new arrivals. Instead, volunteers stepped in to provide humanitarian assistance. They are locals as well as citizens from other European countries who engage with the crisis for a variety of reasons, in a range of contexts and with varying consequences. This research project will examine personal motives, social structures and political conditions of volunteering for refugees in countries along the so-called Balkan route: in Greece, in Slovenia, and in former Yugoslav countries. Based on political process tracing, sociological-ethnographic observations and semi-structured interviews with volunteers, officials, locals and refugees we will devise country reports that will create the basis for a comparative study. Thus, we will interrogate whether we can witness in this refugee policies ’from below’ the creation of a particular, pro-immigration and human rights based European civil society or social movement.

Europe’s response to the so-called ‘migration crisis’ has been driven almost exclusively by a border control agenda. This has significantly reduced the number of refugees and migrants arriving in Greece, for the time being at least, but has done nothing to address the drivers or causes of migration to Europe, including the movement of people from Libya which continues unabated, or the protection and integration needs of those who are already here. The research aims to: • Shed light on the dynamics (determinants, drivers and infrastructures) underpinning the recent unprecedented levels of migration across, and loss of life in, the Mediterranean; • Provide insights into the interaction of refugees and migrants with a multitude of non-State actors (for example smugglers, facilitators, and Non- Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and State actors (for example, the navy / coastguard) in order to better understand their decision making processes; and • Explore how the decisions made by refugees and migrants on their journeys interact with dramatically changing global economic, security and political contexts.

Humanitäre Nothilfe in Flüchtlingslagern ist in Afrika keine Ausnahmesituation. Seit einem halben Jahrhundert prägen Flüchtlingslager die Geschichte des Kontinents. Von der Entstehung des UNO Flüchtlingswerks (UNCHR, 1951) bis zu den heutigen Flüchtlingswellen aus der Zentralafrikanischen Republik nach Kamerun (2014) haben sich Flüchtlingslager als das dominante standardisierte Instrument für die Versorgung und Unterbringung von Flüchtlingen durchgesetzt. Anthropologen, Soziologen, Politologen und Geographen haben bereits wichtige Studien zu Flüchtlingslagern vorgelegt, historische Untersuchungen sind jedoch bisher ein Forschungsdesiderat. Das hier vorgestellte Projekt untersucht Flüchtlingslager als technisches Dispositiv der globalisierten humanitären Hilfe. Es analysiert wie seit der Gründung des UNHCR im Jahre 1951 ein Ensemble von physischen Artefakten (Zelte, Kits, Gegenständen), wissenschaftlichen Komponenten (Handbücher, Verfahren, Statistiken), Normen (Regeln, rechtlichen Kategorien) und Experten (Ingenieure, Ärzte, Stadtplaner, Architekten) entstanden ist. Das Projekt analysiert zunächst die Kontroversen um die Planung von Flüchtlingslagern, zweitens die Standardisierung von Verfahren, und drittens die kreative Anpassung der Lagertechniken durch die Hilfsempfänger. Empirisch konzentriert sich das Vorhaben auf drei Aspekte der Lagertechnologien: a) das Screening von Flüchtlingen, die durch die Auswertung der technical mission reports im Archiv von UNHCR in Genf Archiven analysiert wird; b) die Konzeption und Planung von Modelllagern, deren Entstehung in der Grauliteratur und Handbüchern des UNHCR nachgegangen wird und c) die Frage der Zuteilung der Hilfe, die durch Feldforschung und Experteninterviews in den Flüchtlingslagern um Meiganga (Nordosten von Kamerun) herausgearbeitet werden soll. Dieses Projekt kann als historische Analyse einen wichtigen Beitrag zum Schwerpunktprogramm leisten, indem es das Flüchtlingslager als Technik der humanitären Ordnung untersucht. Flüchtlingslager verknüpfen verschiedene Bereiche (Gesundheit, soziale Kategorisierung, juristische Normen, Sicherheitsfragen) und vernetzen verschiedene Akteure und Interessen (Experten, NGO Angestellte, Flüchtlinge, lokale Bevölkerung, usw.). Sie sind daher in ein gutes Beispiel, um die Artikulation von Visionen globaler Ordnungen und lokale Ordnungskonstellationen zu studieren.

Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) have been part of the “Balkan route” for smuggling people, arms and drugs for decades, but also a migrant route for people who have been trying to reach Western Europe and the countries of the EU in order to save their lives and secure a future for themselves. While in 2015, when millions of people arrived in Europe over a short period of time, BiH was bypassed by mass movements, the situation started changing after the closure of the EU borders in 2016, and later on, in 2017, with the increase of violence and push backs in Croatia, and other countries at the EU borders. This report offers insight into the situation on the field: is there a system responsible for protection, security, and upholding fundamental human rights? What has the state response been like? What is the role of the international community?

This report summarizes findings of two household surveys examining the living conditions of the Palestinian refugee-camp population in Jordan 2011, and examines how the living conditions have evolved since the late 1990s. It finds that people’s overall situation has improved, but that there are significant differences across camps and socio-economic groups, on many indicators.

The project examines the treatment of third-country nationals at the external borders of the European Union in light of the existing fundamental rights framework. Two specific situations are taken into consideration: (1) treatment of third country nationals on the Southern maritime borders of the European Union (Phase I) and (2) treatment of third country nationals at selected land and airport border crossing points (Phase 2). The geographical scope of the research in Phase 1 covers 7 maritime border sectors in Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Malta and Spain; while in Phase 2 - eleven border crossing points at the external Schengen border, including six land border crossing points (BCPs between Bulgaria and Turkey, between Greece and Turkey, between Slovakia and Ukraine, between Hungary and Serbia, between Poland and Ukraine and between Spain and Morocco, and five border crossing points at selected airports (Paris C.d.Gaulle, Amsterdam/Schiphol, Rome/ Fiumicino, Frankfurt and Manchester). Phase 1 (Maritime borders) Objectives • to examine challenges that emerge during interception and rescue at sea and immediately after disembarkation of migrants • to enhance the protection of fundamental rights during rescue or interception operations at sea, by supporting those in charge of border management to deal with the fundamental rights challenges they may encounter on a daily basis. In Phase 1 the study is based on qualitative research with third country nationals, authorities, fishermen and shipmasters, non-participant observation at maritime borders, and focus group interviews with stakeholder groups, both in EU and third countries. Phase 2 (Land and airport border crossing points) Objectives • to review existing procedures and practices in order to identify whether third-country nationals are treated in accordance with applicable fundamental rights standards (complementation of the Schengen Evaluation system) • to review if commitments related to the Schengen Borders Code (respect for human dignity, non-refoulement, non-discriminatory conduct) are respected during first and second line border checks as well as in facilities used for persons refused admission. In Phase 2 the study is based on non-participant observation at border crossing points, quantitative and qualitative research with third country nationals, and interviews with civil society actors. Outcomes Maritime border research Empirical case studies (phase 1) • 7 case studies of maritime border sectors • 5 sets of country fact sheets (maritime borders), covering 7 themes • Comparative report of fundamental rights challenges relating to surveillance and control of maritime borders Human rights training related to rescue and interception at sea • 5 country reports on Fundamental Rights training • Recommendations for training of border guards Land and air border research • 11 case studies of border crossing points • 9 sets of country fact sheets on 4 themes • Comparative report on border crossing points

The main issues highlighted in the report of IRMA research programme are the role of asylum as primary reason for migration, and the importance of capital as the main parameter of successful migration. The smuggler is the key actor underscoring all discussions, holding multiple roles; from facilitator of mobility, to source of information, or disruptor to the migratory project. The choice of destination and the limited information informants actually have, are discussed, as well as the role of Turkey as a hub for collection of information, but mostly of money to continue the journey. The border crossing for both entry and exit is discussed in relation to policies in Greece and particular border fencing and increased deterrence of entry. Finally, the text highlights the issue of detention, as the key policy in place at the time of writing that appears to have impacted heavily both the migratory route but also the decision of Afghans to leave Greece, either via transit (where possible) or via return to Afghanistan.

In 2015 an estimated 1,011,712 people crossed the Mediterranean to Europe in search of safety and a better life. 3,770 are known to have died trying to make this journey1. Funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) and the Department for International Development (DfID), the MEDMIG project examines the dynamics, determinants, drivers and infrastructures underpinning this recent migration across and loss of life in the Mediterranean. This research brief presents some of our findings in relation to the Central Mediterranean route from North Africa to Italy and Malta, exploring the dynamics of migration before, during and after the sea crossing. We will place particular focus on the motivations, routes and experiences of those making the journey and local, national and European Union (EU) policy responses.

This report presents the findings of field research in Kenya under the KNOW RESET project, which maps and analyses legal and policy frameworks as well as practices related to resettlement to European countries. The research in Kenya was a component of this broader project, which included research in 27 EU member states and three countries of first asylum: Kenya, Pakistan and Tunisia. Research was carried out in Nairobi and Kakuma refugee camp between June and October 2012 and involved interviews with refugee and resettlement actors, including those participating in resettlement to European countries. The report broadly explores and presents Kenya’s resettlement landscape, the positions, roles and practices of European resettlement countries within that landscape, and the perspectives and experiences of refugees around resettlement.

Le Maroc constitue un bassin migratoire important. Si le territoire a constitué, au cours de toute cette première moitié du XXème siècle, un pays d'immigration accueillant des flux migratoires relativement importants en provenance d’un certain nombre de pays européens, il est également et progressivement devenu depuis un pays d'émigration à destination des pays de l'Union européenne dans sa grande majorité. L'émigration marocaine vers cet espace est en effet devenue, depuis les années 1960, un phénomène sociétal majeur. Reste, toutefois, que le Maroc ne constitue pas seulement un foyer d’émigration dans la double mesure essentielle où il est aussi devenu un espace de transit pour de nombreux jeunes migrants originaires principalement de l’Afrique subsaharienne, et s’inscrit dans une tendance croissante à devenir un pays de résidence pour ces derniers. Morocco has always been an important migration hub. While it was an immigration country during the first half of the twentieth century, receiving relatively important migratory flows from a range of European countries, it has also become, in recent times, an emigration country, mainly towards European Union countries. Moroccan emigration towards the EU has become a major social issue. However, Morocco is not only defined as an emigration hub. It has also become a space for transit for young migrants from Sub-Saharan African countries, and it has become a country of residence for many of them.

This report is based on interviews with migrants who are stuck in transit in Khartoum on their way to Europe. Challenged by the rough living conditions in the Sudanese capital, they weigh the attractions of reaching their preferred destination against the costs and dangers on the route through the desert and across the Mediterranean. What role does information play in these considerations? Can information campaigns on social media influence their decisions?

"The ExiTT project (in its preparatory phase from January 2018 to December 2019) prepares a large-scale research project that processually traces, documents and analyses processes of migration from origin countries, from the starting point, over the route, until integration in the destination countries and their societies from social, economic, political and cultural aspects. At the same time, it will analyse the political, economic, societal, discursive and legal transformation of the sending, transit and receiving/destination countries as well as political, economic, societal, discursive and legal repercussions by, for example, transnational relationships, re-migration, circular migration or post-migration mobility. To grasp such complex processes, it employs a research approach that is interdisciplinary, multi-local and multi-method. The multidisciplinary research approach is intended to apply research perspectives from sociology, political sciences, psychology, geography, history, cultural sciences and economics in order to design questionnaires, to conceive the regional case studies and to carry out the data analyses. The main task of the project will be the collection and analysis of new data in multiple locations such as origin, transit, and receiving countries that will provide a unique basis to deliver evidence for the above sketched topics. The basic idea and method will follow a combination of the ethnosurvey model (Massey & Zenteno 2000) and regional case studies. On the basis of multiple methodological approaches such as surveys, fieldwork, discourse, media and policy analyses in origin, transit and immigration countries, the ExiTT project is intended to answer questions about the causes and motives of migration decisions, about the negotiations and conditions for successful integration and participation in transit and immigration countries, and about various aspects of social, political, economic and cultural transformations in all countries involved. The results of the data generated though this mixed methods approach is intended to be collated into one comprehensive data set that – based on the model of the Mexican Migration Project – will continue to grow cumulatively over time. In addition to surveys and (qualitative) interviews with individuals (migrants as well as non-migrants) expert interviews with representatives from state and private organisations as well as observations in the field will be conducted and innovative methods like experiments will be deployed. From the data set, there will derive a potential for research into the causes, conditions and negotiations of migration and migration routes as well as the changes in the so-called transit or host/receiving countries and their societies. At the same time, an interdependent approach will be chosen that includes in the analysis the effects of migration in the exit or origin countries. Insights into migration and integration processes from various actors and in multiple sub-systems can be expected on the basis of this data set. Labour market-specific and education-related aspects, cultural and social practices of integration, and obstacles and negative effects of disintegration could be evaluated according to target groups and, e.g., analysed in families and house-holds from the gender perspective or with regard to youths. In parallel, transformations in political structures, cultures or societies can be documented and the analysis of changes empirically grounded. The ExiTT project is a cooperation project of the DeZIM research community."

Alongside the increase in EU border control, there are efforts by the European Union (EU) and its Member States to mainstream human rights principles in external border control and in the construction of fair asylum systems. The safeguarding of human rights is critically important for migrants, especially at first reception and in border activity when migrants are at their most vulnerable physically, legally and politically, socio-culturally and economically. The responsibility for ensuring that the dignity and human rights of the migrants are safeguarded is recognised by the EU and its Member States. First reception activity is officially regulated by four sets of policies and procedures, which are usually conducted within a few days or weeks. These are rescue at sea, immigration, reception/detention and asylum procedures. They are policies that involve a vast range of stakeholders and, as such, the complex interactions between their activities need to be carefully managed in order for the whole first reception system to function. Research has so far focused on the analysis of policy and institutions, but not so much on what happens on the ground. This project proposes to contribute to these efforts by examining the treatment of irregular migrants in the first reception systems of Italy and Malta. These are two countries which lie on the Central Mediterranean Maritime Route, an important route for irregular entry into the EU. Whereas there have been few maritime arrivals in Malta in the last years, Italy triggered the EU hotspot approach to help in processing irregular maritime migrants. This study aims to produce both ethnographic descriptions of the everyday implementation of the reception activity on the ground, and also critical approaches to the mainstreaming of human rights at the border. It also seeks to contribute towards discussions on the controversial use of detention at entry of all arrivals which is the premise up on which first reception is enacted. This is done through long term and multi-sited ethnographic fieldwork. The outcome of this independent academic project, funded by EU Marie Curie research funds, is the publication of articles in academic journals.

Studies on transit migration in Africa and beyond reveal a Eurocentric bias, focusing on transit countries located on the fringes of Europe. Furthermore, there is a significant research gap on female transit migrants, and transit points at respective countries of origin. The proposed ethnographic research questions these dominant discourses and seeks to fill the knowledge gap by focusing on the case of Ethiopian female migrants by studying a transit country, Djibouti, located outside of the fringes of Europe, and two transit towns in Ethiopia. According to the preliminary information gathered through interviews and observation in Djibouti, there are thousands of Ethiopian female transit migrants in Djibouti city that work in a strongly gendered labour market. Based on an ethnographic research, the proposed study documents and examines the biographies and profiles of the migrants, their perceptions about migration, factors that informed their decisions to migrate, their everyday lives in transit, their pathways of incorporation, the challenges they face and the different strategies they adopt to overcome them, factors that impact the migrants' decisions to stay in the transit country, move further, return home and/or to choose their final destinations. The study will contribute to the on-going academic discussion on transit migration and feminisation of migration by adding the perspective of female transit migrants. In so doing, the study seeks to fill the gender and regional gaps in studies on transit migration. Furthermore, the proposed study contributes to the formulation of effective, sustainable and rights-based policy responses to migration in general and transit migration in particular.

Studies on transit migration in Africa and beyond reveal a Eurocentric bias, focusing on transit countries located on the fringes of Europe. Furthermore, there is a significant research gap on female transit migrants, and transit points at respective countries of origin. The proposed ethnographic research questions these dominant discourses and seeks to fill the knowledge gap by focusing on the case of Ethiopian female migrants by studying a transit country, Djibouti, located outside of the fringes of Europe, and two transit towns in Ethiopia. According to the preliminary information gathered through interviews and observation in Djibouti, there are thousands of Ethiopian female transit migrants in Djibouti city that work in a strongly gendered labour market. Methods and concepts Based on an ethnographic research, the proposed study documents and examines the biographies and profiles of the migrants, their perceptions about migration, factors that informed their decisions to migrate, their everyday lives in transit, their pathways of incorporation, the challenges they face and the different strategies they adopt to overcome them, factors that impact the migrants’ decisions to stay in the transit country, move further, return home and/or to choose their final destinations. Outcomes and societal relevance The study will contribute to the on-going academic discussion on transit migration and feminisation of migration by adding the perspective of female transit migrants. In so doing, the study seeks to fill the gender and regional gaps in studies on transit migration. Furthermore, the proposed study contributes to the formulation of effective, sustainable and rights-based policy responses to migration in general and transit migration in particular.

Auf Basis architektur- und sozialwissenschaftlicher Methoden untersucht das Forschungsprojekt die physisch-materiellen und symbolischen Aneignungsprozesse von geflüchteten Menschen an unterschiedlichen Asylorten. Damit rückt es das handlungsrelevante Raumwissen in einer hochmobilen Ausnahmesituation (Flucht) in den Mittelpunkt. Empirisch ist die Studie so angelegt, dass syrische Geflüchtete vergleichend in Deutschland (Berlin) und Jordanien (Zataari) untersucht werden.

The phenomenon of irregular transit, or step-by-step, migration is not a new trend as it has been increasingly witnessed in many parts of the world in the last three decades. For instance, at the surrounding regions of Europe, countries like Turkey, Morocco and Ukraine are subject to flows of irregular migrants who come from the third countries and intend to enter Europe from these peripheral territories. While the nature, dynamics and mechanisms of these flows are relatively well-documented in recent related literature, there are limited number of studies which focus on the particular cases of migrant groups. This essay tends to fill in this void, by focusing on the cases of transit migration in Turkey who come from the Indian sub-continent mainly with the intention of going to Europe. While the essay elaborates on Bangladeshi, Indian, Nepalese, Pakistani, and Sri Lankan transit migrants in general, special emphasis is mainly on Indians. In the lack of comprehensive and reliable data, the paper is an exploratory study rather than an explanatory one, which attempts to map out a relatively new migratory form and process from India to Europe that develops as a step-by-step, or transit, migration through various countries: the case of Turkey, as a transit country, has provided us with a unique setting which has a relatively long-established tradition of being a transit country towards Europe for thousands of transit migrants mostly from the Middle-East, and is now also increasingly becoming functional for transit migrants who come from the Indian subcontinent and try to enter Europe.

The Special Rapporteur's aim on her visit to Italy was to compile information on border control and security and the system for the administrative detention of undocumented immigrants, and to assess the impact of the recent reform of immigration legislation on policies for the integration of the immigrant population.

Résumé La présente note analytique met en exergue le phénomène de la migration de transit en Tunisie. Tout en relevant de prime abord que les données fiables sur la question restent peu disponibles, la note trace les contours du phénomène sur l’importance duquel tous les acteurs sociaux s’accordent en se basant sur des sources diverses disponibles. Dans une première partie, elle dresse un état des lieux qui comportera des indications sur la question ; puis elle examine l’impact de la migration de transit au niveau de la société, tout en essayant de dégager l’attitude des acteurs politiques et économiques et de la société civile. Enfin, elle présente l’état des recherches entreprises sur une question qui reste encore peu explorée par des recherches académiques, en comparaison avec le Maroc et l’Algérie. La conclusion démontre que les réponses aux impacts de la migration de transit et aux défis qu’elle pose pour la zone méditerranéenne ne peuvent être que globales et prises au niveau régional. Abstract The analytical note highlights the phenomenon of transit migration in Tunisia. After showing that reliable data on the question remain scarce, it depicts the most important aspects and patterns of the phenomenon which has drawn increasing attention on the part of social actors and whose importance has become incontestable. Then it examines the impact of transit migration on the social level whilst dwelling on the attitudes of political and economical actors as well as those of the civil society. The note also tackles the research progress undertaken on the subject which remains relatively under explored in comparison to the Algerian and Moroccan cases. The conclusion shows that solutions and responses to the various effects of transit migration and to the challenges it poses in the Mediterranean zone should be global and endorsed on a regional level.